The Protestant Reformation was an historical miracle of sorts – the movement of a sovereign God to steer the course of the church from darkness back toward the light of the gospel. The beauty of God’s sovereignty is exemplified in His masterful use of the various personalities and gifts of the men involved in the Reformation. One of these very interesting men is Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560).
Melanchthon was a German, born at Bretten in the territory called the Palatinate where his father was the personal armorer (supplying weapons and armor) to the Elector of the Palatinate.[i] The Electors were part of the electoral college that elected the Holy Roman Emperor who was personally coronated by the Pope himself. This tells us that Melanchthon was born into a family that highly valued both the ecclesiastical world, as well as the political world. In one sense, all the Reformers were born into a world where politics intertwined with the church in complex ways difficult for the American mindset to contemplate. Melanchthon’s father likely possessed great pride in his position. On his deathbed, Melanchthon’s father pleaded with his children “never to leave the church” revealing the deep-seated place the church held in Melanchthon’s family as well.[ii] This came from a man supplying armor to an important elector of the government. Government and the church seemed inseparable to the people of the 16th century.
Melanchthon’s very heritage helps us better understand his political and ecclesiastical efforts to unite a divided church. He cherished the traditions of the church; while at the same time saw the corruption and abuses that had developed throughout the centuries within the church. He also was aware from a pragmatic perspective that the longevity of the Reformation depended in some measure upon both coercion of and cooperation with civil authorities. Luther himself was very keen of this; his very life being protected by Frederick the Wise (Elector of Saxony from 1486-1525). In some measure, Luther was bound by political power, beholden, as it were, to the high political machinery of Germany to accomplish key Reformation victories. This was the reality for Melanchthon as well.
Luther’s influence upon Melanchthon cannot be overstated. Arriving at the University of Wittenberg in 1518, Melanchthon was initially hired as Greek teacher. He was a respected humanist scholar before embracing the gospel of grace and becoming a brilliant theologian, and leading Reformer until his death in 1560. In the absence of Luther, and in the stead of Luther, Melanchthon was viewed as one of the most articulate spokesmen of the Protestants at both imperial diets set by the political world, and ecclesiastical councils–often called religious colloquies–in the church world.[iii] History takes note of the ease by which he moved about in the political and ecclesiastical worlds beginning with the Diet at Speyer in 1529. This Diet insisted upon a stricter adherence to the Edict of Worms (1521), signed by Charles V, which made Luther an outlaw of the empire. It was the determination of the Diet of Speyer to actually enforce laws prohibiting Protestant beliefs and practices, which in turn inspired the Reformers (with Luther working in the background) to redouble their efforts at uniting on some reasonable level with one another in order to possess a more strengthened front against the Roman church.[iv]
One of these attempts took place at the Marburg Colloquy (1529) where a collection of Reformers from Switzerland and Germany had a “religious discussion to resolve their differences and to create an ecclesiastical and theological agreement as the basis for a political alliance”.[v] In other words, this colloquy had both political and theological motivations. Both were necessary in the world of the Reformers since Rome was intent to make war on Protestantism. Apart from political maneuvering and alliances among civil authorities, the Reformation simply would have hit a stalemate. This is why Luther and Zwingli agreed to participate in this important colloquy under the sponsorship of Philipp of Hesse (1504-1567), a German Landgrave who supported Protestantism. Philipp saw a chance to unite the Reformers of south Germany together with the Swiss. He longed for all German Princes to be free from the Holy Roman Empire, forming a new alliance under the banner of Protestantism.
The Marburg Colloquy ended up focusing on the theological differences between the Lutheran and Reformed views of the Lord’s Supper concerning the real presence of Christ in the sacrament. If unanimity could be attained, then Germany would have the backing of the Swiss. Particularly, this would mean more than just church unity, but also the addition of the Swiss forces. Phillip of Hesse saw this as an obvious militaristic advantage in light of the looming threat of Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. It was at Marburg that Luther and Melanchthon opposed Zwingli, insisting that the Lord’s Supper was more than a memorial. Melanchthon obviously sided with Luther during the debate, though Luther himself admitted that Melanchthon did not hold to his own position as strongly and was more willing to compromise for the sake of unity. Later evidence suggests that Melanchthon changed his position to a more Reformed understanding of Communion. Even still, no agreement was reached between the opposing factions at this colloquy.
This brings us to the origins of the Augsburg Confession (1530), credited to Melanchthon as the primary author/editor. Melanchthon, of course, used Luther’s own confession, as well as the Schwabach (1529) and Torgau articles (1530) as the basis of the confession. But ironically, it was Charles V who called for an imperial diet at Augsburg, which gave rise to the Augsburg Confession. Initially, Charles V had not strictly enforced the Edict of Worms, which involved a personal ban on Luther’s books and person. The reason for this was his preoccupation with wars against France, the Papal States, and the Turks. But once he signed treaties with France and the Pope, and then defeated the Turks at Vienna (1529), he was able to turn his attention to the internal affairs of his empire. And Charles V was sick of war – he desired peace, and viewed the Turks as the greatest threat to European harmony. Though he halted the advance of the Turks during the Siege of Vienna (1529), Charles V believed that if political unity in Europe could materialize through religious negotiations, then the Turks could be soundly defeated. This led him to seek a truce between the Roman church and the Reformers by calling for an imperial diet to take place at Augsburg where negotiations for peace and explanations of beliefs could take place. Since Luther was not allowed to go, he sent Melanchthon in his place.
The heart of what became the Augsburg Confession began as a defense against the long list of heresies that John Eck alleged against the Reformers. On his way to Augsburg, Melanchthon systematized both Lutheran doctrine in particular, and Protestant doctrine in general, into a condensed document attempting to show Eck and the Roman church that the Reformers were simply following the ancient church fathers in their beliefs. So the document itself was not only an attempt to unite Protestants, but also left the door open for unity with the Roman church, provided the Roman church recognize that the Reformers position was that of the church fathers, or at least that their views were latent within the fathers writings. This is where Luther differed from Melanchthon. Though he approved the draft of the Augsburg Confession, he felt it conceded too much to the Roman church. Indeed, many important matters were glossed over and not addressed. Both princes and theologians contributed to the Augsburg Confession, which diluted its content due to its inherent political aspirations. This was purposeful, not so much as intentional compromise as much as what was viewed as necessary action to bring about enough unity to help the broader Protestant cause. “The authors of the Augsburg Confession were thus aware of the doctrinal differences but downplayed them to obtain toleration in their teaching and to leave open the possibility of coming to an agreement.”[vi]
The Augsburg Confession was read before German rulers at Augsburg, but ultimately failed in any significant unification. Instead, the Roman church drafted a document also read before the German rulers at Augsburg, which refuted the Augsburg Confession, a document that Charles V himself signed. Even still, though not achieving unity between the Roman church and the Reformers, Charles V unknowingly contributed to the drafting of a document (The Augsburg Confession) that would become the primary confessional statement of Lutheranism. The Apology was also written by Melanchthon and served as a deeper explanation of the doctrines affirmed in the Augsburg Confession. The Augsburg Confession is still considered one of the most important Protestant documents to date.
Melanchthon upheld justification by faith alone, and in this sense carried forth the gospel legacy of Luther. However, he was different than Luther in temperament and perspective. He pursued a peace he never achieved, while Luther was more concerned about declaring truth and allowing the pieces to fall where they must. Nevertheless, both men were products of their times. For his part, Luther was a man of the Middle Ages, understanding that religious progress was necessarily tied to political processes. Even still, he was less eager than Melanchthon to pursue political alliances when he believed too much truth was at stake.
Melanchthon’s influence can only be understood by considering who he was as a Reformer and a theologian.
Melanchthon As a Reformer
Melanchthon was much different than Luther. He was passive, not aggressive. If Luther was pioneering and provocative, Melanchthon was cautious and conciliatory. If Luther was bold and bombastic, then Melanchthon was peaceful and pliable. Luther was the teacher, and Melanchthon his pupil. This does not mean Melanchthon was not courageous, but he was naturally averse to strife. He truly believed that the church was one, and that differences could be settled between various Protestants themselves, as well as between Protestants and the Roman church to some degree. Luther gently chided Melanchthon for this perspective in a letter he wrote him in June, 1530.
“To your great anxiety by which you are made weak, I am a cordial foe; for the cause is not ours. It is your philosophy, and not your theology, which tortures you so, as though you could accomplish anything by your useless anxieties. So far as the public cause is concerned, I am well content and satisfied; for I know that it is right and true, and, what is more, it is the cause of Christ and God Himself. For that reason, I am merely a spectator. If we fall, Christ will likewise fall; and if we fall, I would rather fall with Christ than stand with the emperor.”[vii]
Here we should observe that it takes a Luther and a Melanchthon for a Reformation to occur. We all admire Luther’s fiery spirit to fight for truth. Such was necessary for the Reformation to succeed. On the other hand, Melanchthon was able to have discourse with those on the opposing side. It was likely Melanchthon’s presence at the Marburg Colloquy that helped calm Luther enough to have a lengthy discussion regarding the Lord’s Supper. Luther was adamant about his position, and perhaps apart from Melanchthon’s presence might have walked out early on in the proceedings. Other men were present at Marburg who also saw the importance of attempted theological mediation. One such man was Martin Bucer, John Calvin’s close associate.
Such dialogue is good for Christians to engage in. As Western civilization grows increasingly secular, we need both Luther’s and Melanchthon’s in the church – those who hit back hard theologically, as well as those who are able to have theological discourse on both sides of the aisle so to speak. Melanchthon clearly walked that line too closely, especially with the Roman church. Even still, his willingness to work aside other Protestants showcases his desire for unity among the church, even though it was not ultimately achieved. Melanchthon’s spirit is a helpful reminder regarding valiant attempts to stay united on primary issues within the body of Christ.
Melanchthon was never able to attain the peace within the church he sought. After the Diet of Augsburg (1530), the Protestant princes recognized that the Emperor intended to make war on Protestants. This led them to form the Schmalkald League, again under the leadership of Philipp of Hesse. The League held several conferences trying to persuade some in the Roman church to convert to Protestantism. The result of this was, of course, not peace, but the Schmalkald Wars, which broke out in 1547, only a year after Luther’s death.
Melanchthon As a Theologian
Melanchthon’s legacy as a theologian centers upon his ardent defense of justification by faith alone. He is considered the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation. His great skill is rooted in lack of creativity when it comes to theology. That may sound like a criticism, but nothing serves as a greater compliment than to applaud a man for his efforts at caring more about the church understanding truth than being viewed as possessing academic prowess. Melanchthon genuinely cared that the people in the pew understood the biblical doctrines of the Reformation. He was a master at systematizing and explaining truth, condensing what Luther and other prominent Reformers taught. This is not to say that he could not “think” for himself. In fact, after Luther’s death, Melanchthon was involved in theological controversies revealing a more theologically independent spirit. Sadly, he seemed to shift from his solid theological grounding a bit. Nevertheless, Melanchthon’s gift was articulating truth in a manner people could understand it for his day. This is a good reminder to us that the academy does not exist for the sake of the academy, but for the sake of the church. Clearly Melanchthon believed this or the theology of the Reformation would not have spread to laymen as it did so successfully throughout all of Europe.
Conclusion
Melanchthon had particularly controversial episodes arise in the last decade of his life. Even to this day he is viewed with suspicion, not fully embraced by either the Lutherans or the Reformed apart from important qualifications. But it is also important to recognize that Luther himself only viewed him as a close friend and faithful Reformer.
God is sovereign over even our personalities. The Psalmist declares that he was “knitted” by God in his “mother’s womb” and “fearfully and wonderfully made”.[viii] God used the temperament and perspective of Melanchthon, which differed from Luther in many ways, to continue circulating the teachings of Luther after his passing. Melanchthon himself died after a brief sickness in 1560. He was buried next to Luther as a testimony to their unity, as well as their joint achievements for the Protestant Reformation.
[i] The Westminster Dictionary of Church History, Edited by Jerald C. Brauer, 539.
[ii] The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol VII, 283.
[iii] The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Vol 3, Hans J. Hillerbrand, Editor in Chief, 43.
[iv] The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Vol 1, Hans J. Hillenbrand, 94.
[v] Ibid., 94
[vi] Ibid., 94.
[vii] The New Shaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, Vol VII, 282-283.
[viii] Psalm 139:13-14, ESV