In the last article I considered some of the geopolitical factors leading to Geneva’s quest for independence. We saw how their desire to separate from the Roman church served as a convenient catalyst for autonomy. And we also considered how Calvin’s personal circumstances providentially changed as God led him to Geneva where he agreed to lead the city into organized Reformation.
This article will focus upon the initiatives both Farel and Calvin implemented at the request of the town council of Geneva. The town council instinctively knew they needed the Reformers. How could there even be a Reformation apart from religious leaders? But unfortunately a strong desire of the state to control the church ultimately led to Calvin and Farel’s dismissal.
Calvin’s Under Appreciated Value
Farel had successfully garnered the support of influential families in Geneva, some of whose members sat on the town council. But apparently the council was overall not super impressed with Calvin. It is difficult for us looking back on history to understand how this could be given Calvin’s massive Reformation influence. We need to bear in mind, however, that Calvin was young, just 27 years old. Furthermore, his Institutes were hot off the press. Though he was growing in influence, he had not established himself as a leading Reformer yet. And probably more to the point, he had no experience as a churchman. Leading the Reformation of an entire city was a daunting task to say the least, especially for a 27 year old pastor with no pastoral experience. In the formal listings of Calvin’s appointment, the secretary of the little council referred to him simply as “that Frenchman”.[i] Nevertheless, Calvin and Farel began working immediately.
The town council endorsed Calvin at the request of Farel since Farel believed him to be an important asset in forming a Protestant community that would model before Europe what Reformation theology could achieve for a Protestant city. Originally, Calvin was hired as something equivalent to a Scripture reader for public worship, but he quickly developed a reputation for being a solid teacher. It did not take long at all before Calvin was an official minister in the city, second only to Farel. Farel pressured the town council to provide an appropriate salary for Calvin, but he did not receive a paycheck until February of 1537, which means Calvin humbly served several months without receiving any pay. A level of distrust existed between Calvin and the town council from the beginning not merely because he was young and inexperienced, but because he was viewed as a French foreigner (Farel was also French). Rumors that Geneva could potentially be annexed to France fueled the distrust even more. Though Calvin himself had nothing to do with these rumors directly, he was viewed with suscipcion. Nevertheless, Calvin labored faithfully without complaint.
Both Farel and Calvin made it clear from the very beginning that the purity of the church was critical for Reformation. They neither hid their motives, nor were ambiguous as to why this was important. The Reformation was a “back to the Bible” movement through and through. Sola Scriptura was the rallying cry from its launching point. But seeking purity within the church in Geneva would not be easy. Geneva’s citizens were known for their lighthearted approach to life, infamous for possessing a revelry spirit. All forms of debauchery marked the city from public drunkenness to the open toleration of adultery. The state even sanctioned prostitution, which was led by a woman referred to as the “Queen of the brothel”.
Calvin and Farel sought to implement several initiatives to reform the city. I will mention four primary actions they took, the results of which reveal that neither the town council nor the citizens were ready for Reformation. The last action sees Calvin and Farel refusing to serve the Lord’s Supper. This was the last straw in the eyes of the town council who voted to depose both Farel and Calvin for their bold move.
Confession and Catechism
Farel and Calvin’s first initiative focused on the purity of the people. But the first step toward achieving purity of behavior among the citizens of Geneva involved purifying their beliefs. Only the gospel could change hearts. Farel and Calvin strongly believed that the Word of God as the final authority alongside the gospel as the only means of salvation must be clearly, consistently, and forcefully articulated. Thus, they jointly drafted both a Confession of Faith, which included directives for church discipline, along with a Catechism. The Confession was straightforward, and thoroughly Reformed. It taught salvation by grace alone through faith alone, not by works (Article 10). More to the point, it pointed to the Word of God as the community’s rule of faith and practice. It also made some distinctions between the duties of the church and the duties of the civil magistrates. Article 19 set forth the necessity of discipline, first through admonition of the sinner, then by excommunication if necessary.[ii] The Catechism drew its content largely from Calvin’s Institutes. It is critical to bear in mind that the council enthusiastically embraced and approved both the Confession and the Catechism in November 1536. The council then eagerly made these documents available to the public first by printing and distributing them in April 1537, and then by having them read from the pulpits every Sunday until the citizens were familiar enough with their content to pave the way for city wide adoption.[iii]
A Robust Protestant Liturgical Order
The second order of business pursued by Calvin and Farel involved presenting to the large town council the various elements composing the liturgical order for the churches. These included suggestions such as the monthly observance of the Lord’s Supper, Psalm singing in worship, regular catechizing of the youth, the dissolution of papal marriage laws, and the enforcement of excommunication for sinners refusing to repent from open sin. These suggested measures provided a seedbed from which controversy would flourish. But it took months for friction between the Reformers and town council to develop before things got too hot to handle.
Calvin and Farel brainstormed with the town council regarding a program for monitoring behavior in the town. It was agreed that the monitoring itself would be carried out through the leadership of the council who would appoint men in the city of good reputation to work alongside the pastors of the churches in supervising the behavior of Geneva’s citizens. These proctors were strategically divided up and placed within the various districts of the town. The large council not only heartily approved this measure, but issued a series of orders on January 16, 1537 “forbidding immoral habits, foolish songs, gambling, the desecration of the Lord’s day, baptism by midwives, and directing that the remaining idolatrous images should be burned.”[iv] A number of recorded cases of infraction reveal the relevant success of the ministers working alongside the magistrates to enforce this program of discipline, revealing its effectiveness. Geneva slowly began to change her immoral reputation. Protestant refugees began flocking to Geneva from France, Germany, and even England.
Nevertheless, even with this early success, the town council purposely omitted any written or verbal orders regarding excommunication in the distributed documents and announcements in the churches. This was problematic to say the least since the implementation of excommunication was a non-negotiable for Calvin and Farel. Their goal was never morality for the sake of morality. Rather, they sought the purity and protection of the church. They viewed excommunication as a major emphasis of the Apostles of the New Testament church, and were simply trying to follow biblical directives for the structure of the church in the new covenant.
Broader Reform Efforts
Besides regularly preaching multiple times every Sunday, conducting Bible lectures and preaching other sermons throughout the rest of the week, as well as actively visiting households, Calvin and Farel also participated in reforms abroad by encouraging the Protestant brethren at both Bern and Lausanne. They willingly and enthusiastically sought to aid other Protestant ministers not located within Geneva with the heavy responsibility of reform. Unfortunately, one of the Protestant pastors being helped turned against Calvin and Farel. His name was Peter Caroli and he pastored in Lausanne. In May 1537, Caroli - who seriously lacked integrity and was known for having a concubine- accused Farel and Calvin of Arianism. These charges were easily refuted by Calvin and Farel not only due to Caroli’s lack of credibility, but also because Calvin and Farel drafted written orthodox statements detailing their view of Christ as possessing full deity. Caroli, on the other hand, was deemed unworthy of ministry by the leadership of Lausanne. He defected to the Roman Catholic Church denouncing his Protestant loyalties altogether. Nevertheless, this public controversy served as ammunition for an increasing number of citizens growing weary of the reform measures of Calvin and Farel.
The rebellious faction of the city was led by a political party known as the Patriots who desired political autonomy for Geneva and viewed Protestantism as the best way to achieve it. But once the reforms were enacted the members of this party began harassing the town council to the point that the already existing friction between Farel and Calvin and the town council became too much to overcome. The council was already unyielding to Calvin and Farel’s insistence upon excommunication. Many townspeople feigned allegiance to the Confession so that once an undercurrent of rebellion against the ministers began to gain momentum –being spearheaded by the Patriots– many in Geneva publicly and vehemently opposed Calvin and Farel. The influential Libertines openly practiced adultery and seemed invincible to excommunication. They were some of Calvin’s staunchest enemies.
Other factors contributed to the halt of reform efforts. Though Geneva was officially independent of Bern, the Bernese model of Reformation was more moderate and thus more acceptable to the Genevan town council. For example, Farel was viewed by the Bernese brothers as somewhat radical for removing baptismal fonts and departing from the Bernese practice of using unleavened bread at the Lord’s Supper. Since Bern had considerable influence over the Protestants in their region, they influenced motions carried forth during an important synod meeting in Lausanne. Lausanne was a city that also looked to Bern for guidance. This Synood recommended that all the Reformed churches in the region follow the Bernese custom of using unleavened bread in the Lord’s Supper. The council in Geneva voted to enforce these measures without consulting Calvin or Farel.[v] The Bernese likely desired Bern to be considered the leading Reformation city. They potentially coveted control of Geneva, viewing Farel and Calvin’s independent spirit as a threat to their influence.
The Last Straw
A power struggle between the ministers and the town council ultimately reached a boiling point. Farel and Calvin viewed the town council’s unwillingness to implement excommunication as a hill worth dying on. They rightly understood that apart from the town council implementing excommunication there could not be a pure and holy church. This led them to make the joint decision that on Easter Sunday, April 21 they would refuse to serve the Lord’s Supper since the church was harboring public, unrepentant sinners. Sunday came, and they preached their sermons before explaining that they could not in good conscience serve the Lord’s Supper, for that would be indirectly endorsing open sin. Calvin carried this out at St. Pierre’s; Farel at another church across town.
Evidence suggests the town council saw it coming. The necessary supplies could not be found anywhere. People were so angry they began drawing their swords, drowning out the explanation of the ministers. Calvin and Farel had to have friends escort them home out of fear for their lives.
That evening, Calvin returned to the pulpit to preach in spite of the aggressive spirit of the people. People openly made threats toward the lives of both Calvin and Farel. The town council met three times: once after the Sunday morning sermons, again on Monday, and then once again on Tuesday. It was on Tuesday that the large council of 200 voted to give Calvin and Farel three days to leave the city under threat of arrest.
It is worth reiterating that Geneva’s desire for political and religious independence was financially motivated. Being freed from paying taxes to Rome was a huge incentive for becoming Protestant. This was hardly a spiritual reason. William Farel was intensely persevering and very evangelistic, having begun a preaching tour in Switzerland in 1532. He had previously been kicked out of Geneva by the city authorities on two separate occasions, one involving a conspiracy by the city authorities who laced Farel’s food with poisonous mushrooms! Farel’s reforms with Calvin from 1536-1538 was his third attempt at reforming the town of Geneva with the gospel. These important details provide a balanced perspective when analyzing Calvin’s relationship with the town council. These were very difficult people to work with, the majority of whom were almost certainly not true believers.
[i] Carter Lindberg, The European Reformation, 257.
[ii] Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church: Vol. 7, The Swiss Reformation, 354.
[iii] Shaff, 353.
[iv] Schaff, 355.
[v] Schaff, 358-359.